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References

  1. McDonald LC, Owings M, Jernigan DB. Increasing rates of Clostridium difficile infection among patients discharged from US short-stay hospitals, 1996–2003. Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. 2006 Mar [02/12/2006]. Available from:
    http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no03/05-1064.htm
     
  2. Sohn S, Climo M, Diekema D, et al. Varying rates of Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea at prevention Epicenter hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005; 26:676-9.
     
  3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Severe Clostridium difficile-Associated Disease in populations previously at low risk - four states, 2005. MMWR 2005; 54(no.47):1201-5. Available at:
    http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5447a1.htm
     
  4. Thielman NM, Wilson KH. Antibiotic-Associated Colitis (chapter 92). In: Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 6th ed. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, 2005, pgs. 1251-63.
     
  5. Loo VG, et al. A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med. 2005 Dec 8;353(23):2442-9.
     
  6. McDonald LC, et al. An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med. 2005 Dec 8;353(23):2433-41.
     
  7. Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A, et al. Increased toxins A and B production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet 2005;366:1079-84.
     
  8. Muto CA, et al. A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005 Mar;26(3):273-80.
     
  9. McEllistrem MC, Carman RJ, Gerding DN, et al. A hospital outbreak of Clostridium difficile disease associated with isolates carrying binary toxin genes. Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Jan 15;40(2):265-72.
     
  10. Palmore TN, et al. Risk factors for acquisition of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea among outpatients at a cancer hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2005 Aug;26(8):680-4.
     
  11. Pepin J, Valiquette L, Alary ME, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a region of Quebec from 1991 to 2003: a changing pattern of disease severity. CMAJ. 2004 Aug 31;171(5):466-72. Available at:
    http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?
    tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15337727
     
  12. Pepin J, Valiquette L, Cossette B. Mortality attributable to nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated disease during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain in Quebec. CMAJ. 2005 Oct 25;173(9):1037-42.
    Available at:
    http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?
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  13. Spigaglia P, Mastrantonio P. Comparative analysis of Clostridium difficile clinical isolates belonging to different genetic lineages and time periods. J Med Microbiol. 2004 Nov;53 (Pt 11):1129-36. Available at:
    http://jmm.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/full/53/11/1129
     
  14. Shim JK, Johnson S, Samore MH, et al. Primary symptomless colonisation by Clostridium difficile and decreased risk of subsequent diarrhoea. Lancet. 1998 Feb 28;351(9103):633-6.
     
  15. McDonald LC. Trends in antimicrobial resistance in health care-associated pathogens and effect on treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Jan 15;42 Suppl 2:S65-71.
     
  16. Pepin J, Saheb N, et al. Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41(9):1254-60.
     
  17. Gaynes R, Rimland D, Killum E, et al. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in a long-term care facility: association with gatifloxacin use. Clin Infect Dis. 2004 ;38:640-5.
     
  18. McCusker ME, et al. Fluoroquinolone use and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Emerg Infect Dis. 2003 Jun;9(6):730-3. Available at:
    http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol9no6/02-0385.htm
     
  19. Yip C, et al. Quinolone use as a risk factor for nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2001 Sep;22(9):572-5.
     
  20. Davey P, et al. Systematic review of antimicrobial drug prescribing in hospitals. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:211-16. Available at:
    http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no02/05-0145.htm
     
  21. Dial S, et al. Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA. 2005;294(23):2989-95.
     
  22. Al-Tureihi F, et al. Albumin, length of stay, and proton pump inhibitors: key factors in Clostridium difficile-associated disease in nursing home patients. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2005;6(2):105-8.
     
  23. Dial S, et al. Risk of Clostridium difficile diarrhea among hospital inpatients prescribed proton pump inhibitors: cohort and case-control studies. CMAJ. 2004 Jul 6;171(1):33-8. Available at:
    http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?
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  24. Cunningham R, et al. Proton pump inhibitors as a risk factor for Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. J Hosp Infect. 2003 Jul;54(3):243-5.
     
  25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). CDC Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. MMWR 2002;51(No. RR-16):1-45. Available at:
    http://www.cdc.gov/handhygiene/
    Also see Premier's Safety Web Guidelines section
     
  26. World Health Organization (WHO). WHO Guidelines on hand hygiene in health care (advanced draft): A summary. WHO/EIP/SPO/QPS/05.2, 2005.
    Available at:
    http://www.who.int/patientsafety/events/05/HH_en.pdf
    Also see Premier's Safety Web Guidelines section
     
  27. Krein S, et al. Translating infection prevention evidence to enhance patient safety study – newsletter & brief study update. 09/01/2005. Available at:
    http://www.med.umich.edu/psep/Brief data report for ICPs_Newsletter.pdf
     
  28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) C. difficile FAQs: Information for healthcare providers. Updated 7/22/05. Available at:
    http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/id_CdiffFAQ_HCP.html
     
  29. Gordin FM, et al. Reduction in nosocomial transmission of drug-resistant bacteria after introduction of an alcohol-based hand rub. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005;26:650-3.
     
  30. Gopal Rao G, Jeanes A, et al. Marketing hand hygiene in hospitals--a case study. J Hosp Infect. 2002 Jan;50(1):42-7.
     
  31. King S. Provision of alcohol hand rub at the hospital bedside: a case study. J Hosp Infect 2004;56 (Suppl):S10-2.
     
  32. Safdar N, Maki D. The commonality of risk factors for nosocomial colonization and infection with antimicrobial-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, enterococcus, gram-negative bacilli, Clostridium difficile, and Candida. Ann Intern Med. 2002 Jun 4;136(11):834-44.
     
  33. Leischner J, Johnson S, Sambol S, Parada, J, Gerding D.. Effect of alcohol hand gels and chlorhexidine hand wash in removing spores of Clostridium difficile (cd) from hands. Hines VA Hosp., Hines, IL. 2005 Abstract ICCAC LB-29-2005]
     
  34. Johnson S, Gerding DN, et al. Prospective, controlled study of vinyl glove use to interrupt Clostridium difficile nosocomial transmission. Am J Med. 1990 Feb;88(2):137-40
     
  35. Samore MH, et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of sporadic and clustered cases of nosocomial Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Am J Med. 1996 Jan;100(1):32-40.
     
  36. Bettin K, et al. Effectiveness of liquid soap vs. chlorhexidine gluconate for the removal of Clostridium difficile from bare hands and gloved hands. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1994 Nov;15(11):697-702.
     
  37. Rutala WA. Overview of draft Disinfection and Sterilization Guidelines. APIC 2005. Available at:
    http://www.disinfectionandsterilization.org
    See also Premier's Safety Web Hand Hygiene section
     
  38. Perez J, et al. Activity of selected oxidizing microbiocides against the spores of Clostridium difficile: relevance to environmental control. Am J Infect Control. 2005 Aug;33(6):320-5.
     
  39. Block C. The effect of Perasafe and sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) against spores of Clostridium difficile and Bacillus atrophaeus on stainless steel and polyvinyl chloride surfaces. J Hosp Infect. 2004 Jun;57(2):144-8.
     
  40. Wullt M, et al. Activity of three disinfectants and acidified nitrite against Clostridium difficile spores. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2003 Oct;24(10):765-8.
     
  41. Wilcox MH, et al. Comparison of the effect or detergent versus hypochlorite cleaning on environmental contamination and incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 2003;54:109-14.
     
  42. Mayfield JL, et al. Environmental control to reduce transmission of Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31(4):995-1000.
     
  43. American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE). Multi-society guideline for reprocessing flexible gastrointestinal endoscopes. Gastrointest Endosc. 2003 Jul;58(1):1-8. Available at:
    https://premierinc.com/quality-safety/tools-services/safety/topics/guidelines/other.jsp
     
  44. Rutala WA, et al. Inactivation of Clostridium difficile spores by disinfectants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1993 Jan;14(1):36-9.
     
  45. Hughes CE, et al. Efficacy of routine fiberoptic endoscope cleaning and disinfection for killing Clostridium difficile. Gastrointest Endosc. 1986 Feb;32(1):7-9
     
  46. Jernigan JA, et al. A randomized crossover study of disposable thermometers for prevention of Clostridium difficile and other nosocomial infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1998 Jul;19(7):494-9
     
  47. Brooks S, et al. Reduction in vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus and Clostridium difficile infections following change to tympanic thermometers. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1998 May;19(5):333-6.
     

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